Upon starting the system, you are presented with the character based login screen if you did not install X Window System with the display manager such as gdm. Suppose your hostname is foo, the login prompt looks like:

foo login:

If you did install a GUI environment such as Gnome of KDE, then you can get to a prompt by Ctrl-Alt-F1, and you can return to the GUI screen via Alt-F7 (see Virtual Consoles below for more information).

Following what you selected during the installation process, you type your username, e.g. penguin, and press the Enter-key, then type your password and press the Enter-key again.

Now you are in the shell. The shell interprets your commands. The system starts with the greeting message stored in /etc/motd (Message Of The Day) and with the command prompt as:

Debian GNU/Linux lenny/sid foo tty1
foo login: penguin
Password:
Last login: Sun Apr 22 09:29:34 2007 on tty1
Linux snoopy 2.6.20-1-amd64 #1 SMP Sun Apr 15 20:25:49 UTC 2007 x86_64

The programs included with the Debian GNU/Linux system are free software;
the exact distribution terms for each program are described in the
individual files in /usr/share/doc/*/copyright.

Debian GNU/Linux comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY, to the extent
permitted by applicable law.
foo:~$

Here, the main part of the greeting message can be customized by editing the /etc/motd.tail file. The first line is generated from the system information using "uname -snrvm".

If you installed X Window System with a display manager such as Gnome's gdm by selecting "Desktop environment" task during the installation, you will be presented with the graphical login screen upon starting your system. You type your username and your password to login to the non-privileged user account. Use tab to navigate between username and password, or use the mouse and primary click.

You can gain the shell prompt under X by starting a x-terminal-emulator program such as gnome-terminal, rxvt or xterm. Under the Gnome Desktop environment, clicking "Applications" -> "Accessories" -> "Terminal" does the trick.

You can also see the section below Section 2.1.6, “Virtual consoles”.

Under some other Desktop systems (like fluxbox), there may be no obvious starting point for the menu. If this happens, just try (right) clicking the center of the screen and hope for a menu to pop-up.

The root account is also called superuser or privileged user. From this account, you can perform the following system administration activities:

This unlimited power of root account requires you to be considerate and responsible when using it.

Here are a few basic methods to gain the root shell prompt by using the root password:

When your desktop menu does not start GUI system administration tools automatically with the appropriate privilege, you can start them from the root shell prompt of the X terminal emulator, such as gnome-terminal, rxvt, or xterm. See Section 2.1.4, “The root shell prompt”.

In the default Debian system, there are six switchable VT100-like character consoles available to start the command shell directly on the Linux host. Unless you are in a GUI environment, you can switch between the virtual consoles by pressing the Left-Alt-key and one of the F1--F6 keys simultaneously. Each character console allows independent login to the account and offers the multiuser environment. This multiuser environment is a great Unix feature, and very addictive.

If you are under the X Window System, you gain access to the character console 1 by pressing Ctrl-Alt-F1 key, i.e., the left-Ctrl-key, the left-Alt-key, and the F1-key are pressed together. You can get back to the X Window System, normally running on the virtual console 7, by pressing Alt-F7.

You can alternatively change to another virtual console, e.g. to the console 1, by the command:

# chvt 1

You type Ctrl-D, i.e., the left-Ctrl-key and the d-key pressed together, at the command prompt to close the shell activity. If you are at the character console, you will return to the login prompt with this. Even though these control characters are referred as "control D" with the upper case, you do not need to press the Shift-key. The short hand expression, ^D, is also used for Ctrl-D. Alternately, you can type "exit".

If you are at x-terminal-emulator, you can close x-terminal-emulator window with this.

Just like any other modern OS where the file operation involves caching data in memory for improved performance, the Debian system needs the proper shutdown procedure before power can safely be turned off. This is to maintain the integrity of files, by forcing all changes in memory to be written to disk. If the software power control is available, the shutdown procedure automatically turns off power of the system. (Otherwise, you may have to press power button for few seconds after the shutdown procedure.)

Under the normal multiuser mode, use following from the root command prompt to shutdown the system:

# shutdown -h now

Under the single-user mode, use following from the root command prompt to shutdown the system:

# poweroff -i -f

Alternatively, you may type Ctrl-Alt-Delete (The left-Ctrl-key, the left-Alt-Key, and the Delete are pressed together) to shutdown if /etc/inittab contains "ca:12345:ctrlaltdel:/sbin/shutdown -t1 -a -h now" in it. See manpage for inittab(5) for details.

When the screen goes berserk after doing some funny things such as "cat <some-binary-file>", type "reset" at the command prompt. You may not be able to see the command echoed as you type. You may also issue "clear" to clean up the screen.

Although even the minimal installation of the Debian system without any desktop environment tasks provides the basic Unix functionality, it is a good idea to install few additional commandline and curses based character terminal packages such as mc and vim with aptitude for beginners to get started. From the shell prompt as root:

# aptitude update
...
# aptitude install mc vim sudo
...

If you already had these packages installed, nothing will be installed.

It may be a good idea to read some informative documentations.

You can install some of these packages by issuing the following command from the root shell prompt:

# aptitude install package_name

If you do not want to use your main user account for the following training activities, you can create a training user account, e.g. fish. Type at root shell prompt:

# adduser fish

This will create a new account named as fish. After your practice, you can remove this user account and its home directory by:

# deluser --remove-home fish

For the typical single user workstation such as the desktop Debian system on the laptop PC, it is common to deploy simple configuration of sudo(8) as follows to let the non-privileged user, e.g. penguin, to gain administrative privilege just with his user password (not with the root password).

# echo "penguin  ALL=(ALL) ALL" >> /etc/sudoers

This trick should only be used for the single user workstation which you administer and where you are the only user.

Now you are ready to play with the Debian system without risks as long as you use the non-privileged user account.

This is because the Debian system is, even after the default installation, configured with the proper file permissions which prevent non-privileged users from damaging the system. Of course, there may still be some holes which can be exploited but those who worry about these issues should not be reading this section but should be reading Securing Debian Manual.

We will review basic Unix filesystem theory first. Then we will learn the Debian system with the easy way using Midnight Commander (MC) and with the proper Unix-like ways.

Here are Unix file basics:

The detailed best practices for the file hierarchy are described in the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (/usr/share/doc/debian-policy/fhs/fhs-2.3.txt.gz and hier(7)). You should remember the following facts as the starter:

Following the Unix tradition, the Debian GNU/Linux system provides the filesystem under which physical data on harddisks and other storage devices reside, and the interaction with the hardware devices such as console screens and remote serial consoles are represented in an unified manner [under /dev/].

Each file, directory, named pipe (a way two programs can share data), or physical device on a Debian GNU/Linux system has a data structure called an inode which describes its associated attributes such as the user who owns it (owner), the group that it belongs to, the time last accessed, etc. If you are really interested, see /usr/include/linux/fs.h for the exact definition of struct inode in the Debian GNU/Linux system. The idea of representing just about everything in the file system was a Unix innovation, and modern Linux kernels have developed this idea ever further. Now, even information about processes running in the computer can be found in the file system.

This abstract and unified representation of physical entities and internal processes is very powerful since this allows us to use the same command for the same kind of operation on many totally different devices. It is even possible to change the way the kernel works by writing data to special files that are linked to running processes.

All of your files could be on one disk --- or you could have 20 disks, some of them connected to a different computer elsewhere on the network. You can't tell just by looking at the directory tree, and nearly all commands work just the same way no matter what physical device(s) your files are really on. [This is a good thing. Trust us.] Of course, methods do exist whereby you can tell what devices map to which physical or network devices. mount with no arguments will show how storage is mapped to physical or network devices.

The filesystem permissions of Unix-like system are defined for three categories of affected users:

For the file, each corresponding permission allows:

For the directory, each corresponding permission allows:

Here, execute permission on the directory means not only to allow reading of files in its directory but also to allow viewing their attributes, such as the size and the modification time.

To display permission information (and more) for files and directories, ls(1) is used. When ls invoked with the -l option, it displays the following information in the order given:

To change the owner of the file, chown(1) is used from the root account. To change the group of the file, chgrp(1) is used from the file's owner or root account. To change file and directory access permissions, chmod(1) is used from the file's owner or root account. Basic syntax to manipulate foo file is:

# chown <newowner> foo
# chgrp <newgroup> foo
# chmod  [ugoa][+-=][rwx][,...] foo

For example, in order to make a directory tree to be owned by a user foo and shared by a group bar, issue the following commands from the root account:

# cd /some/location/
# chown -R foo:bar .
# chmod -R ug+rwX,o=rX .

There are three more special permission bits:

Here the output of ls -l for these bits is capitalized if execution bits hidden by these outputs are unset.

Setting set user ID on an executable file allows a user to execute the executable file with the owner ID of the file (for example root). Similarly, setting set group ID on an executable file allows a user to execute the executable file with the group ID of the file (for example root). Because these settings can cause security risks, enabling them requires extra caution.

Setting set group ID on a directory enables the BSD-like file creation scheme where all files created in the directory belong to the group of the directory.

Setting the sticky bit on a directory prevents a file in the directory from being removed by a user who is not the owner of the file. In order to secure the contents of a file in world-writable directories such as /tmp or in group-writable directories, one must not only set write permission off for the file but also set the sticky bit on the directory. Otherwise, the file can be removed and a new file can be created with the same name by any user who has write access to the directory.

Here are a few interesting examples of the file permissions.

$ ls -l /etc/passwd /etc/shadow /dev/ppp /usr/sbin/exim4
crw------- 1 root root   108, 0 2007-04-29 07:00 /dev/ppp
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root     1427 2007-04-16 00:19 /etc/passwd
-rw-r----- 1 root shadow    943 2007-04-16 00:19 /etc/shadow
-rwsr-xr-x 1 root root   700056 2007-04-22 05:29 /usr/sbin/exim4
$ ls -ld /tmp /var/tmp /usr/local /var/mail /usr/src
drwxrwxrwt 10 root root  4096 2007-04-29 07:59 /tmp
drwxrwsr-x 10 root staff 4096 2007-03-24 18:48 /usr/local
drwxrwsr-x  4 root src   4096 2007-04-27 00:31 /usr/src
drwxrwsr-x  2 root mail  4096 2007-03-28 23:33 /var/mail
drwxrwxrwt  2 root root  4096 2007-04-29 07:11 /var/tmp

There is an alternative numeric mode to describe file permissions in chmod(1) commands. This numeric mode uses 3 to 4 digit wide octal (radix=8) numbers.

This sounds complicated but it is actually quite simple. If you look at the first few (2-10) columns from "ls -l" command output and read it as a binary (radix=2) representation of file permissions ("-" being "0" and "rwx" being "1"), the last 3 digit of the numeric mode value should make sense as an octal (radix=8) representation of file permissions to you. For example, try:

$ touch foo bar
$ chmod u=rw,go=r foo
$ chmod 644 bar
$ ls -l foo bar
-rw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 17 2007-04-29 08:22 bar
-rw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 12 2007-04-29 08:22 foo

What permissions are applied to a newly created file or directory is restricted by the umask shell built-in command. See dash(1), bash(1), and builtins(7).

 (file permission) = (requested file permission) & ~(umask value)

The Debian system uses a user private group (UPG) scheme as its default. A UPG is created whenever a new user is added to the system. A UPG has the same name as the user for which it was created and that user is the only member of the UPG. UPGs makes it is safe to set umask to 0002 since every user has their own private group. (In some Unix variants, it is quite common to setup all normal users belonging to a single users group and is good idea to set umask to 0022 for security in such cases.)

In order to make the group permission to be applied to a particular user, that user needs to be made a member of the group using "sudo vigr".

The hardware devices are just another kind of file on the Debian system. If you have problems accessing devices such as CD-ROM and USB memory stick from a user account, you should make that user a member of the relevant group.

Some notable system-provided groups allow their members to access particular files and devices without root privilege.

Some notable system provided groups allow their members to execute particular commands without root privilege.

For the full listing of the system provided users and groups, see the recent version of the "Users and Groups" (/usr/share/doc/base-passwd/users-and-groups.html) document provided by the base-passwd package.

See manpages of passwd(5), group(5), shadow(5), group(5), vipw(8), vigr(8), and pam_group(8) for the management commands of the user and group system.

There are three types of timestamps for a GNU/Linux file.

Note that ctime is not file creation time.

Note that even simply reading a file on the Debian system will normally cause a file write operation to update atime information in the inode. Mounting a filesystem with the noatime option will let the system skip this operation and will result in faster file access for the read. This is often recommended for laptops, because it reduces hard drive activity and saves power. See mount(8).

Use touch(1) command to change timestamps of existing files.

For timestamps, the ls command outputs different strings under the modern English locale (en_US.UTF-8) from under the old one (C).

$ LANG=en_US.UTF-8  ls -l foo
-rw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 3 2008-03-05 00:47 foo
$ LANG=C  ls -l foo
-rw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 3 Mar  5 00:47 foo

There are two methods of associating a file foo with a different filename bar.

See the following example for the changes in link counts and the subtle differences in the result of the rm command.

$ echo "Original Content" > foo
$ ls -li foo
2398521 -rw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 17 2007-04-29 08:15 foo
$ ln foo bar     # hard link
$ ln -s foo baz  # symlink
$ ls -li foo bar baz
2398521 -rw-r--r-- 2 penguin penguin 17 2007-04-29 08:15 bar
2398538 lrwxrwxrwx 1 penguin penguin  3 2007-04-29 08:16 baz -> foo
2398521 -rw-r--r-- 2 penguin penguin 17 2007-04-29 08:15 foo
$ rm foo
$ echo "New Content" > foo
$ ls -li foo bar baz
2398521 -rw-r--r-- 2 penguin penguin 17 2007-04-29 08:15 bar
2398538 lrwxrwxrwx 1 penguin penguin  3 2007-04-29 08:16 baz -> foo
2398540 -rw-r--r-- 2 penguin penguin 12 2007-04-29 08:17 foo
$ cat bar
Original Content
$ cat baz
New Content

The hardlink can be made within the same file system and shares the same inode number which the "-i" option with ls command reveals.

The symlink always has nominal file access permissions of "rwxrwxrwx", as shown in the above example, with the effective access permissions dictated by the permissions of the file that it points to.

The "." directory links to the directory that it appears in, thus the link count of any new directory starts at 2. The ".." directory links to the parent directory, thus the link count of the directory increases with the addition of new subdirectories.

If you are just moving to Linux from Windows, it will soon become clear how well-designed the file-name linking of Unix is, compared with the nearest Windows equivalent of "shortcuts". Because it is implemented in the file system, applications can't see any difference between a linked file and the original. In the case of hardlinks, there really is no difference.

A named pipe is a file that acts like a pipe. You put something into the file, and it comes out the other end. Thus it's called a FIFO, or First-In-First-Out: the first thing you put in the pipe is the first thing to come out the other end.

If you write to a named pipe, the process which is writing to the pipe doesn't terminate until the information being written is read from the pipe. If you read from a named pipe, the reading process waits until there is something to read before terminating. The size of the pipe is always zero --- it does not store data, it just links two processes like the shell "|". However, since this pipe has a name, the two processes don't have to be on the same command line or even be run by the same user. Pipes were a very influential innovation of Unix.

You can try it by doing the following:

$ cd; mkfifo mypipe
$ echo "hello" >mypipe & # put into background
[1] 8022
$ ls -l mypipe
prw-r--r-- 1 penguin penguin 0 2007-04-29 08:25 mypipe
$ cat mypipe
hello
[1]+  Done                    echo "hello" >mypipe
$ ls mypipe
mypipe
$ rm mypipe

Sockets are used extensively by all the Internet communication, databases, and the operating system itself. It is similar to the named pipe (FIFO) and allows processes to exchange information even between different computers. For the socket, those processes do not need to be running at the same time nor to be running as the children of the same ancestor process. This is the endpoint for the inter process communication (IPC). The exchange of information may occur over the network between different hosts. The two most common ones are the Internet socket and the Unix domain socket.

Device files refer to physical or virtual devices on your system, such as your hard disk, video card, screen, or keyboard. An example of a virtual device is the console, represented by /dev/console.

You can read and write device files, though the file may well contain binary data which may be an incomprehensible-to-humans gibberish. Writing data directly to these files is sometimes useful for the troubleshooting of hardware connections. For example, you can dump a text file to the printer device /dev/lp0 or send modem commands to the appropriate serial port /dev/ttyS0. But, unless this is done carefully, it may cause a major disaster. So be cautious.

The device node number are displayed by executing ls as:

$ ls -l /dev/hda /dev/ttyS0 /dev/zero
brw-rw---- 1 root cdrom   3,  0 2007-04-29 07:00 /dev/hda
crw-rw---- 1 root dialout 4, 64 2007-04-29 07:00 /dev/ttyS0
crw-rw-rw- 1 root root    1,  5 2007-04-29 07:00 /dev/zero

Here,

In the Linux 2.6 system, the filesystem under /dev is automatically populated by the udev(7) mechanism.

There are some special device files.

These are frequently used in conjunction with the shell redirection (see Section 2.5.5, “Typical command sequences and shell redirection”).

The procfs and sysfs mounted on /proc and /sys are the pseudo-filesystem and expose internal data structures of the kernel to the userspace. In other word, these entries are virtual, meaning that they act as a convenient window into the operation of the operating system.

The directory /proc contains (among other things) one subdirectory for each process running on the system, which is named after the process ID (PID).

System utilities that access process information, such as ps, get their information from this directory structure.

The directories under /proc/sys/ contain interface to change certain kernel parameters at run time. (You may do the same through specialized command sysctl(8) or its preload/configuration file /etc/sysctrl.conf.)

People frequently panic when they notice one file in particular - /proc/kcore - which is generally huge. This is (more or less) a copy of the contents of your computer's memory. It's used to debug the kernel. It is a virtual file that points to computer memory, so don't worry about its size.

The directory under /sys contains exported kernel data structures, their attributes, and the linkages between them. It also contains interface to change certain kernel parameters at run time.

See proc.txt(.gz), sysfs.txt(.gz) and other related documents in the Linux kernel documentation (/usr/share/doc/linux-doc-2.6.*/Documentation/filesystems/*) provided by the linux-doc-2.6.* package.

 sudo aptitude install mc                                                                                                   

In order to make MC to change working directory upon exit and cd to the frequently used directories, I suggest to modify ~/.bashrc to include:

. /usr/share/mc/bin/mc.sh                                                                                                        

See mc(1) (under the "-P" option) for the reason. (If you do not understand what exactly I am talking here, you can do this later.)

MC can be started by:

$ mc

MC takes care of all file operations through its menu, requiring minimal user effort. Just press F1 to get the help screen (see next paragraph if this doesn't work). You can play with MC just by pressing cursor-keys and function-keys.

In some consoles such as gnome-terminal, key strokes of function-keys may be stolen by the console program. You can disable these features by "Edit" -> "Keyboard Shortcuts" for gnome-terminal. In particular, consider removing the mapping of F1 to Gnome Terminal Help; doing so will allow F1 to show Midnight Commander help.

If you encounter character encoding problem which displays garbage characters, adding "-a" to MC's command line may help prevent problems.

If this doesn't clear up your display problems with MC, see Section 10.3.5, “The terminal configuration”.

The default is two directory panels containing file lists. Another useful mode is to set the right window to "information" to see file access privilege information, etc. Following are some essential keystrokes. With the gpm daemon running, one can use a mouse, too. (Make sure to press the shift-key to obtain the normal behavior of cut and paste in MC.)

The internal editor has an interesting cut-and-paste scheme. Pressing F3 marks the start of a selection, a second F3 marks the end of selection and highlights the selection. Then you can move your cursor. If you press F6, the selected area will be moved to the cursor location. If you press F5, the selected area will be copied and inserted at the cursor location. F2 will save the file. F10 will get you out. Most cursor keys work intuitively.

This editor can be directly started on a file:

$ mc -e filename_to_edit
$ mcedit filename_to_edit

This is not a multi-window editor, but one can use multiple Linux consoles to achieve the same effect. To copy between windows, use Alt-F<n> keys to switch virtual consoles and use "File->Insert file" or "File->Copy to file" to move a portion of a file to another file.

This internal editor can be replaced with any external editor of choice.

Also, many programs use the environment variables EDITOR or VISUAL to decide which editor or viewer to use. If you are uncomfortable with vim or nano initially, you may set these to mcedit by adding these lines to ~/.bashrc:

...
export EDITOR=mcedit
export VISUAL=mcedit
...

I do recommend setting these to vim if possible.

If you are uncomfortable with vim, you can keep using mcedit for most system maintenance tasks.

Very smart viewer. This is a great tool for searching words in documents. I always use this for files in the /usr/share/doc directory. This is the fastest way to browse through masses of Linux information. This viewer can be directly started like so:

$ mc -v path/to/filename_to_view
$ mcview path/to/filename_to_view

Press Enter on a file, and the appropriate program will handle the content of the file. This is a very convenient MC feature.

In order to allow these viewer and virtual file features to function, viewable files should not be set as executable. Change their status using the chmod command or via the MC file menu.

MC can be used to access files over the Internet using FTP. Go to the menu by pressing F9, then type "p" to activate the FTP virtual filesystem. Enter a URL in the form "username:passwd@hostname.domainname", which will retrieve a remote directory that appears like a local one.

Try "http.us.debian.org/debian" as the URL and browse the Debian archive.

You can select your login shell with the chsh command.

In this tutorial chapter, the interactive shell always means bash.

You can customize bash behavior by ~/.bashrc. For example, I added followings to ~/.bashrc:

# CD upon exiting MC
. /usr/share/mc/bin/mc.sh

# set CDPATH to good one
CDPATH=.:/usr/share/doc:~/Desktop/src:~/Desktop:~
export CDPATH

PATH="${PATH}":/usr/sbin:/sbin
# set PATH so it includes user's private bin if it exists
if [ -d ~/bin ] ; then
  PATH=~/bin:"${PATH}"
fi
export PATH

EDITOR=vim
export EDITOR

In the Unix-like environment, there are few key strokes which have special meanings. Please note that on a normal Linux character console, only the left-hand Ctrl and Alt keys work as expected. Here are few notable key strokes to remember.

The Unix style mouse operations are based on the 3 button mouse system.

The center wheel on the modern wheel mouse is considered middle mouse button and can be used for middle-click. Clicking left and right mouse buttons together serves as the middle-click under the 2 button mouse system situation. In order to use a mouse in the Linux character console, you need to have gpm running as daemon.

The less program is the enhanced pager (file content browser). Hit "h" for help. It can do much more than more. This less command can be supercharged by executing eval $(lesspipe) or eval $(lessfile) in the shell startup script. See more in /usr/share/doc/lessf/LESSOPEN. The -R option allows raw character output and enables ANSI color escape sequences. See less(1).

You should become proficient in one of the variants of Vim or Emacs programs which are popular in the Unix-like system.

I think getting used to Vim commands is the right thing to do, since Vi-editor is always there in the Linux/Unix world. (Actually, original vi or new nvi are the programs you find everywhere. I chose Vim instead for newbie since it offers you help through F1 key while it is similar enough and more powerful.)

If you chose either Emacs or XEmacs instead as your choice of the editor, that is another good choice indeed, particularly for programming. Emacs has a plethora of other features as well, including functioning as a newsreader, directory editor, mail program, etc.. When used for programming or editing shell scripts, it intelligently recognizes the format of what you are working on, and tries to provide assistance. Some people maintain that the only program they need on Linux is Emacs. Ten minutes learning Emacs now can save hours later. Having the gnu Emacs manual for reference when learning Emacs is highly recommended.

All these programs usually come with tutoring program for you to learn them by practice. Start Vim by typing "vim" and press F1-key. You should at least read the first 35 lines. Then do the online training course by moving cursor to |tutor| and pressing Ctrl-].

Debian comes with a number of different editors. We recommend to install the vim package, as mentioned above.

Debian provides unified access to the system default editor via command /usr/bin/editor so other programs (e.g., reportbug(1)) can invoke it. You can change it by:

$ sudo update-alternatives --config editor

The choice /usr/bin/vim.basic is the recommendation for newbies by the author. This supports syntax highlighting.

You can customize vim behavior by ~/.vimrc. For example, I use:

" -------------------------------
" Local configuration
"
set nocompatible
set nopaste
set pastetoggle=<f2>
syn on
if $USER == "root"
 set nomodeline
 set noswapfile
else
 set modeline
 set swapfile
endif
" filler to avoid the line above being recognized as a modeline
" filler
" filler

The output of the shell command may roll off your screen and may be lost forever. It is good practice to log shell activities into the file for you to review them later. This kind of record is essential when you perform any system administration tasks.

The basic method of recording the shell activity is to run it under the script(1) command.

$ script
Script started, file is typescript

$ vim typescript

See Section 10.2.3, “Recording the shell activities cleanly” .

Let's learn the basic Unix commands. Here I use "Unix" in its generic sense. Any Unix clone OSs usually offer the equivalent commands. The Debian system is no exception. Do not worry if some commands do not work as you wish now. If alias is used in the shell, its corresponding command outputs are different. These examples are not meant to be executed in this order.

Try all the following commands from the non-privileged user account: